Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology Delhi (IIIT-Delhi) Need Library Trainee

Essential Qualification:

Master of Library and Information Science (MLISc) from a recognized Institution/University with First Class.

Stipend: Rs.17,000/- per month (consolidated)

Age Limit: 25 years (as on the last date of application)

Fore More Click Here

Steps in Compilation of a Subject Bibliography

1. Introduction: The various steps that are necessary in the work of compilation of subject bibliography are:

2. Planning:  Planning is the first stage in the compilation. Planning involves the preparation of provisional plant. It would be subject to modification in the light of experienced gained as the work goes on. The following are the steps involves in planning, a. definition of the subject. B. Scope of the subject etc.

3. Definition of the Subject: This can be collected from a general dictionary, an encyclopedia, a standard subject dictionary and form a standard text book or from the subject experts.

4. Scope of the Subject: It depends upon some factors as:

a) Comprehensiveness or selectivity: The subject bibliography taken to be compilation may be comprehensive or selective and it should be precisely.

b) Period: It should state the time covered and also indicate if it is current or retrospective.

c) Form: The compiler should also state if he should consider the inner form of the document or physical form like books, periodicals, encyclopedias, dictionaries, microfiche, pamphlet, manuscripts, gramophone records etc.

d) Level:  the bibliography going to compile is for whom, whether it is for ordinary reader or scholars and researchers.

e) Language: The decision as to which language should be covered whether it should be universal or bilingual or multilingual.

f) Area: The area can be interpreted a either the area of coverage of the subject or geographical place from where the document published, i. e. place of publication

5. Search for Material: The starting point of any search for document is library catalogue then books, periodicals, micro documents etc.

6. Item of Information: If it is a bibliography for ordinary readers brief bibliographical information is sufficient. But is should be descriptive in the case of bibliographies for scholars and researchers. Never less we can follow some standards observed by some standard institution. Information is generally collected in slips, or data entry sheet or cards because that helps in the arrangement.

7. Selection: Selection of required document which suit the purpose of compilation of bibliography should be done in the next step.

8. Kinds of Entries: It is essential to satisfy the approaches through author, collaborator, title (occasionally) and subject. Sufficient member of references should also be provided to take care of alternative approaches.

9. The Arrangement: Some of the possible arrangements are alphabetical, classified, combination of alphabetical and classified, chronological etc. However arrangement of bibliography for a researcher would be different from that of a general reader.

10. Other Adjuncts: The following other adjuncts can be provided to a bibliography

a) Preface

b) List of Contents

c) Method of arrangement

d) Outline of classification used.

e) List of periodicals and other document consulted.

f) List of abbreviation

g) How to use the bibliography with examples.

h) Directory of Publisher etc.

11. Form of Final Presentation: The final form of the presentation of the bibliography may be ob slip cards or magnetic tapes. It may be typed, micro graphed or printed. The decision depends upon the number of users to be served and the amount of resources (manpower and finance) available for their purpose.

source: netugc.com

Librametric, Bibliometric, Scientometrics, Informetrics

Librametric, Bibliometric, Scientometrics, Informetrics: The Librametric, bibliometric, scientometrics, informetrics are overlapping areas, though their scopes are not the same.

1. Librametry: Dr. S. R. Ranganathan coined the term librametry and presented his concept in 1948 at the ASLIB conference held at Lemington Spa. He said that “there is a need to develop this subject on the lines of Biometry, Econometry, Psychometry, etc. He used the term to include statistical approaches to the study of library and its services. However, the practice of using quantitative method to measure information sources were made even before Dr. S. R. Ranganathan either under different name or without any name at all. For instance E. J. Cole and Nellie Eales in 1917, graphically mapped the literature and called this as “Statistical analysis”, E. Wyndham Hulme in 1922 studied the literature and called it “statistical bibliography”, but the terms were found to be clumsy as it could easily be mistaken.

2. Bibliometrics: The formal term “bibliometric” was first used by Alan Pritchard in his article “Statistical bibliography or bibliometric” in 1969 published in the “Journal of Documentation”. “Biblio” means book and “metric” means a scale or measure. Bibliometric means application of statistical studies in library and information science.

            Pritchard defines bibliometric as “the application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of communication”.

            Potter defines bibliometric as “the study and measurement of the publication pattern of all forms of written communication and their author”.

Thus bibliometric is a sort of measuring techniques by which interconnected aspect of written communication can be quantified. It is the study, or measurement, of texts and information. Bibliometrics utilizes quantitative analysis and statistics to describe patterns of publication within a given field or body of literature. Researchers may use bibliometric methods of evaluation to determine the influence of a single writer, for example, or to describe the relationship between two or more writers or works. One common way of conducting bibliometric research is to use the Social Science Citation Index, the Science Citation Index or the Arts and Humanities Citation Index to trace citations.

a) Bibliometric Techniques: There are different kinds of bibliometric techniques. For example-

i) Productivity Count: It deals with books articles, words in a text, place of publication, subject matter, time and date of publication, publishing institution, authors, author’s institution, etc. Nicholas and Ritchie in the book “Literature and Bibliometrics” called it as productivity count or descriptive.

ii) Literature Usage Count: It deals with citation in published works, circulation, frequency of borrowing or browsing different library material, failure and success in search strategies, search option , etc. Nicholas and Ritchie called it as “Evaluative”.

b) Laws of Bibliometrics: One of the main areas in bibliometric research concerns the application of bibliometric laws. The three most commonly used laws in bibliometrics are - Lotka's Law of Scientific Productivity, Bradford's Law of Scatter, and Zipf's Law of Word Occurrence;

i) Lotka's Law of Scientific Productivity: In 1926, Alfred J. Lotka proposed an inverse square law relating to scientific papers to the number of contributions made by each author. Lotka's Law describes the frequency of publication by authors in a given field. It states that ". . . the number (of authors) making n contributions is about 1/n² of those making one; and the proportion of all contributors, that make a single contribution, is about 60 percent". This means that out of all the authors in a given field, 60 percent will have just one publication, and 15 percent will have two publications (1/2² times . 60), 7 percent of authors will have three publications (1/3² times . 60), and so on. According to Lotka's Law of scientific productivity, only six percent of the authors in a field will produce more than 10 articles.

Lotka’s equation is xn.y= Constant.

Where

Y= Frequency of authors making n contribution, the value of the constant was found to be 0.6079

ii) Bradford's Law of Scatter: Samuel Clement Bradford in 1934 points out that if scientific journals are arranged in order of decreasing productivity of articles on a given subject, they may be divided into a nucleus of periodicals more particularly devoted to the subject and several groups and zones containing the same number of articles as the nucleus when the number of periodicals in the nucleus and succeeding zones will be 1: n: n2.

Bradford's Law states that journals in a single field can be divided into three parts, each containing the same number of articles:

* A core of journals on the subject, relatively few in number, that produces approximately one-third of all the articles;

* A second zone, containing the same number of articles as the first, but a greater number of journals, and

* A third zone, containing the same number of articles as the second, but a still greater number of journals.

The mathematical relationship of the number of journals in the core to the first zone is a constant n and to the second zone the relationship is n². Bradford expressed this relationship as 1 : n : n². Bradford formulated his law after studying a bibliography of geophysics, covering 326 journals in the field. He discovered that 9 journals contained 429 articles, 59 contained 499 articles, and 258 contained 404 articles. So it took 9 journals to contribute one-third of the articles, 5 times of 9, or 45, to produce the next third, and 5 times 5 times 9, or 225, to produce the last third.

Bradford's Law serves as a general guideline to librarians in determining the number of core journals in any given field. Bradford's Law is not statistically accurate, but it is still commonly used as a general rule of thumb.

iii) Zipf's Law of Word Occurrence: George K. Zipf, 1947 states that if the words occurring in a natural language text of sizable length were listed in the order of decreasing frequency then the rank of any given word in the list would be inversely proportional to the frequency of occurrence of the word. Zipf’s equation is

r . f = k

Where

r = Rank;

f = Frequency of Word;

k = Constant

The Law states that in a relatively lengthy text, if you "list the words occurring within that text in order of decreasing frequency, the rank of a word on that list multiplied by its frequency will equal a constant. The equation for this relationship is: r x f = k where r is the rank of the word, f is the frequency, and k is the constant. Zipf illustrated his law with an analysis of James Joyce's Ulysses. "He showed that the tenth most frequent word occurred 2,653 times, the hundredth most frequent word occurred 265 times, the two hundredth word occurred 133 times, and so on. Zipf found, then that the rank of the word multiplied by the frequency of the word equals a constant that is approximately 26,500".

c) Uses of Bibliometric Studies: Historically bibliometric methods have been used to trace relationships amongst academic journal citations. The bibliometric research uses various methods of citation analysis in order to establish relationships between authors or their work. The Bibliometric studies are used in

i) Measuring the scattering of articles on a subject in various periodicals (Bradford).

ii) Measuring the productivity of an author based on the number of published articles. (Lotka).

iii) Ranking of words in a text based on frequency of occurrence of words.

iv) Productivity count of literature.

v) To identify the peers, social change and the core journal, etc.

vi) Indexing and Thesaurus;

vii) Research;

viii) Formulating search strategies in case of automated system;

ix) Comparative assessment of the secondary services;

x) Bibliographic control;

xi) Preparation of retrospective bibliographic and

xii) Library Management.

3. Scientometrics: This term was introduced and came into prominence with the founding of the journal named “Scientometrics” by T. Braunin in 1977, originally published in Hungary and currently from Amsterdam.

            The term “Scientometrics” was used to mean the application of quantitative methods to the history of science but it is now generally used as a generic term for a variety of research approaches within the study of science that a quantifiable aspect of science can be utilized to assess the characteristic of science.

            Marton and Garfield have defined it as the field of enquiry given over to the quantitative analysis of science and scientific field.

4. Informetrics: According to Brooker the term “informetrics” was first proposed by Otto Nacke of West Germany in 1979. It focused on information productivity. It interprets information technology and considers interaction of information theory, cybermetrics, decision theory, etc.

5. Webmetrics: Webmetrics can be defined as using of bibliometric techniques in order to study the relationship of different sites on the World Wide Web. Such techniques may also be used to map out (called "scientific mapping" in traditional bibliometric research) areas of the Web that appear to be most useful or influential, based on the number of times they are hyperlinked to other Web sites.

6. Let Us Sum Up: According to Sen, bibliometric deals with document and its component while informetrics studies pertaining to information. Morales use the term informetrics to cover almost all the aspect of bibliometric and librametrics.

source: www.netugc.com

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

1. History: In 1977, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), began to develop its OSI networking suite. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concrete protocols. The standard documents that describe OSI are for sale and not currently available online.

            Parts of OSI have influenced Internet protocol development, but none more than the abstract model itself, documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system is divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provides facilities for use by the layer above it.

In particular, Internet protocols are deliberately not as rigorously architected as the OSI model, but a common version of the TCP/IP model splits it into four layers. The Internet Application Layer includes the OSI Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and most of the Session Layer. Its End-to-End Layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI Session Layer as well as the Transport Layer. Its Internet work Layer is equivalent to the OSI Network Layer, while its Interface layer includes the OSI Data Link and Physical Layers. These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the Internal Organization of the Network Layer document.

Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in a remote host. Service definitions abstractly describe the functionality provided to a (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N is one of the seven layers inside the local host.

The Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model for short) is a layered, abstract description for communications and computer network protocol design, developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) initiative. It is also called the OSI seven layer model. The layers, described below, are, from top to bottom, Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link and Physical. A layer is a collection of related functions that provides services to the layer above it and receives service from the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of the path.

Even though newer IETF and IEEE protocols, and indeed OSI protocol work subsequent to the publication of the original architectural standards that have largely superseded it, the OSI model is an excellent place to begin the study of network architecture. Not understanding that the pure seven-layer model is more historic than current, many beginners make the mistake of trying to fit every protocol they study into one of the seven basic layers. This is not always easy to do as many of the protocols in use on the Internet today were designed as part of the TCP/IP model, and may not fit cleanly into the OSI model.

	Data Unit	Layer	Function
Host layers	Data	7. Application	Network process to application
	Segments	6. Presentation	Data representation and encryption
		5. Session	Interhost communication
Media layers	Packets	4. Transport	End-to-end connections and reliability (TCP)
	Frames	3. Network	Path determination and logical addressing (IP)
	Bits	2. Data link	Physical addressing (MAC & LLC)
		1. Physical	Media, signal and binary transmission

2. Layer 7: Application Layer: The application layer interfaces directly to and performs common application services for the application processes; it also issues requests to the presentation layer. Note carefully that this layer provides services to user-defined application processes, and not to the end user. For example, it defines a file transfer protocol, but the end user must go through an application process to invoke file transfer. The OSI model does not include human interfaces.

The common application services sub layer provides functional elements including the Remote Operations Service Element (comparable to Internet Remote Procedure Call), Association Control, and Transaction Processing (according to the ACID requirements).

Above the common application service sub layer are functions meaningful to user application programs, such as messaging (X.400), directory (X.500), file transfer (FTAM), virtual terminal (VTAM), and batch job manipulation (JTAM). These contrast with user applications that use the services of the application layer, but are not part of the application layer itself.

File Transfer applications using FTAM (OSI protocol) or FTP (TCP/IP Protocol)

Mail Transfer clients using X.400 (OSI protocol) or SMTP/POP3/IMAP (TCP/IP protocols)

Web browsers using HTTP (TCP/IP protocol); no true OSI protocol for web applications

3. Layer 6: Presentation Layer: The Presentation layer transforms the data to provide a standard interface for the application layer. MIME encoding, data encryption and similar manipulation of the presentation are done at this layer to present the data as a service or protocol that the developer sees fit. Examples of this layer are converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serializing objects and other data structures into and out of XML.

4. Layer 5: Session Layer: The Session layer controls the dialogues/connections (sessions) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes check pointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of TCP, and also for session check pointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet protocols suite. Session layers are commonly used in application environments that make use of remote procedure calls (RPCs).

iSCSI, which implements the Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) encapsulated into TCP/IP packets, is a session layer protocol increasingly used in Storage Area Networks and internally between processors and high-performance storage devices. iSCSI leverages TCP for guaranteed delivery, and carries SCSI command descriptor blocks (CDB) as payload to create a virtual SCSI bus between iSCSI initiators and iSCSI targets.

5. Layer 4: Transport Layer: The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/de-segmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail.

Although it was not developed under the OSI Reference Model and does not strictly conform to the OSI definition of the Transport Service, the best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The transport layer is the layer that converts messages into TCP segments or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc. packets.

Of the actual OSI protocols, not merely protocols developed under the model, there are five classes of transport protocols, ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the least error recovery) to class 4 (which is also known as TP4 and is designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the Session Layer.

Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic Presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packets.

6. Layer 3: Network Layer: The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The best known example of a layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). Perhaps it's easier to visualize this layer as managing the sequence of human carriers taking a letter from the sender to the local post office, trucks that carry sacks of mail to other post offices or airports, airplanes that carry airmail between major cities, trucks that distribute mail sacks in a city, and carriers that take a letter to its destinations. Think of fragmentation as splitting a large document into smaller envelopes for shipping, or, in the case of the network layer, splitting an application or transport record into packets.

7. Layer 2: Data Link Layer: The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multi access media, was developed independently of the ISO work, in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sub layering and management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the transport layers by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages.

Both WAN and LAN services arrange bits, from the physical layer, into logical sequences called frames. Not all physical layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely intended for physical layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not used by the data link layer.

a) WAN Protocol Architecture: Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to framing, detect and may correct errors. They also are capable of controlling the rate of transmission. A WAN data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD.

b) IEEE 802 LAN Architecture: Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE Ethernet specification, which is the ancestor of the IEEE 802.3 This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium, which is the function of a Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer. Above this MAC sub layer is the media-independent IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sub layer, which deals with addressing and multiplexing on multi access media.

While IEEE 802.3 is the dominant wired LAN protocol and IEEE 802.11 the wireless LAN protocol, obsolescent MAC layers include Token Ring and FDDI. The MAC sub layer detects but does not correct errors.

8. Layer 1: Physical Layer: The Physical layer defines all the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Hubs, repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area Networks) are physical-layer devices.

To understand the function of the physical layer in contrast to the functions of the data link layer, think of the physical layer as concerned primarily with the interaction of a single device with a medium, where the data link layer is concerned more with the interactions of multiple devices (i.e., at least two) with a shared medium. The physical layer will tell one device how to transmit to the medium, and another device how to receive from it, but not, with modern protocols, how to gain access to the medium. Obsolescent physical layer standards such as RS-232 do use physical wires to control access to the medium.

The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:

-Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.

-Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.

-Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.

Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical SCSI protocol is a transport-layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various physical-layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data-link layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, FDDI, and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

Interfaces: In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission, there are also interface standards for different layers to talk to the ones above or below (usually operating-system–specific). For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layers 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).

OSI Service Specifications are abstractions of functionality commonly present in programming interfaces.

source: www.netugc.com

Library Management Software Packages

Library Management Software Packages: Library management or automation software provides centralized management and processes for different types of libraries and library activities such as acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, administration, reporting and patron records. It provides integration of self-service kiosks and online web portal access for catalogue search, content delivery or reservation requests and such others. They also track and automate notification of overdue books and fines.

In the following paragraphs, an attempt is made to list some of the popular free and open source library automation software packages. A very few commercial software packages are also discussed.

a) Automatización de Bibliotecas y Centros de Documentación (ABCD): ABCD stands for "Automatización de Bibliotecas y Centros de Documentación" (Spanish), which means: Library and Documentation Centers Automation. Its development is promoted and coordinated by BIREME, with the support of VLIR. ABCD is an integrated library management system that covers all the major functions in a library. It is able to manage acquisitions, management of bibliographic databases, user management, loan management, control of periodicals, and so on. It uses MARC-21 cataloguing formats and other current standards or protocols (Dublin Core, METS, Z39.50) and published as Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) with the accompanying tools for the developer community. Website: http://reddes.bvsaude.org/projects/abcd or http://sites.google.com/site/abcdtutorials/

b) DEL-PLUS: This software was designed and developed by Developing Library Network (DELNET), New Delhi exclusively to work under all kinds of libraries. It is able to manage the acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, and administrative work of the library. It also has an OPAC end and follows internationally recommended standards and formats such as MARC 21. It is suitable for small and medium size libraries which have collections upto one lakh holdings. It also supports Barcode. Website: http://delnet.nic.in/software-development.htm

c) E-Granthalaya: e-Granthalaya is a library automation software from National Informatics Centre, Department of Information Technology, Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, Government of India. Using this software the libraries can automate in-house activities as well as user services. The software can be implemented either in stand-alone or in client-server mode where the database and WebOPAC are installed on the server PC while the data entry programme is installed on client PCs. The software runs on Windows platform. The software is provided at zero cost to the Ministries / Departments / Public / Academic / Universities / Colleges and school libraries. Besides, libraries set up in Public / Private sectors may also approach the NIC for free copy of the software.  Website: http://egranthalaya.nic.in/

d) Evergreen: Evergreen is an open source library management software, freely licensed under the GNU GPL. It was first launched in September, 2006 in Georgia's PINES consortium. It is highly-scalable software for libraries that helps library patrons find library materials, and helps the libraries to manage, catalogue, and circulate those materials, no matter how large or complex the libraries. are Evergreen has an active community that participates in its coding, documentation, and direction of the project. Website: http://www.open-ils.org/

e) FireFly: FireFly  is a Complete Public Library system. It is being written in Python, Perl, with all data being stored in XML. The driving force behind this project is to give public libraries a Free-Software set to run and maintain library systems. Website: http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/firefly/

f) Koha: Koha is the world's first open-source Integrated Library System (ILS) and it is distributed free of cost (open source, and so no license fee, ever). It was initially developed in New Zealand by Katipo Communications Ltd and first deployed in January of 2000 for Horowhenua Library Trust. It is currently maintained by a team of software providers and library technology staff from around the globe and is in use worldwide in the libraries of all sizes. The name “Koha” comes from the Maori word for a gift or donation.

It runs on Linux, Unix, Windows and MacOS platform. Koha is a comprehensive system that has the capacity to intelligently run a library, large or small, real or virtual. Koha is compliance with copy cataloguing and z39.50, MARC21 and UNIMARC for professional cataloguers. The software can also be used as document manager or digital library. Website: http://koha.org/

g) Library Information and Management System (LIMS): LIMS is a unique library system, designed, developed, implemented and fully tested by library professionals. It is distributed free of cost to the libraries. Website: http://www.paklag.org/limsFreeware.htm

h) Library Manager: Library Manager is a library management software. It has been developed under GPL licence. Website: http://libman.sourceforge.net/

i) LibSys 7: It is a web based library software product from Libsys Ltd., Gurgaon, Haryana. It has the modules for acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, serials, article indexing, Web-OPAC, and reports. It supports international standard like MARC21 (USMARC + CANMARC), Unicode, SRU-SRW, Z39.50, NCIP-NISO, SICI-Barcode. If any library has the sufficient fund, then it can be treated as the most field-proven library system in a wide spectrum of libraries with unmatchable depth in functionality and features. Website: http://www.libsys.co.in/

j) NewGenLib: NewGenLib is an integrated library management system developed by Verus Solutions Pvt Ltd. Domain expertise is provided by Kesavan Institute of Information and Knowledge Management in Hyderabad, India. On 9th January 2008, NewGenLib was declared as Open Source Software under GNU GPL Licence by Verus Solutions. It is estimated that 2,500 libraries across 58 countries are using NewGenLib as their Primary integrated library management system. Website: http://www.verussolutions.biz

k) OpenBiblio: OpenBiblio is an easy to use, automated library system written in PHP containing OPAC, circulation, cataloguing, and staff administration functionality. The software is free. Website: http://obiblio.sourceforge.net

l) Sanjay: The NISSAT sponsored a project to DESIDOC for developing programmes on UNESCO’s CDS/ISIS for enabling a library to do acquisition, circulation, etc. DESIDOC has successfully modified the programmes and a new package based on CDS/ISIS was released in 1992 by the name of SANJAY. So, Sanjay is an augmented version of CDS/ISIS with modules prepared for the various house keeping operations. The software is totally menu driven and works in windows environment with LAN support. In India, NISSAT is the marketing agent of this software. The package was released for marketing in September 1995.

m) Small Library Organizer Pro: It is a complete software for small private, public, or corporate libraries. It able to manages all the library collections, member / patron information, and keeps track of the library circulation data. The package has a separate module called Designer. With Designer one can modify Small Library solution or can build their own. This is a freeware. Website: http://small-library-organizer-pro.software.informer.com/1.0/

n) SOUL 2.0: Software for University Libraries (SOUL) is the state-of-the-art library automation software designed and developed by the INFLIBNET Centre, Ahmedabad. It is a user-friendly software developed to work under client-server environment. Looking at the name of the software, one may think that it is meant for the university libraries only, but, in fact, it is flexible enough to be used for automating any type or size of library. It is one of the best and proven software for all types of libraries. Website: http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/soul/

o) WEBLIS: WEBLIS is a free-of-charge Web based Library Integrated System based on CDS/ISIS. The system has been developed by the Institute for Computer and Information Engineering (ICIE), Poland. The current version of WEBLIS, available in English, consists of the cataloguing system, OPAC (search), LOAN module, and statistical module. WEBLIS runs through the WWW-ISIS engine. More: http://portal.unesco.org/ci/fr/ev.phpURL_ID=16841&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

Software Name	Developed by
Archives	Microfax Electronic; Systems,  Bombay
Acquas, Ascat, Ascir, Asire, Seras	Ober Information System,  Calcutta
Catman	INSDOC, New Delhi
DELMS	DESIDOC (in 1998)
Defence Library Management System	DESIDOC, New Delhi
Golden Libra	Golden Age Software Technologies, Bombay
e-Granthalaya	INSDOC, New Delhi
Krvger Library Manager	Blitz Audio Visuals,  Pune
Krvger Library Manager	Blitz Audio Visuals,  Pune
Librarika	Rayhan, Bangladesh  (Integrated Library System (ILS)
ListPlus	Computer Systems, Bangalore
Libman	Datapro Consultancy Services, Pune
Libra	Ivy System Ltd.,  New Delhi
Libsys, Micro-Libsys	LibsysCorpn.,  New Delhi
LibSoft	ET&T New Delhi
Liberator	CMC Ltd.Calcuta
Librarian	Soft Aid, Pune
Loan Soft	Computek Computer Systems,  Hyderabad
LIBSYS	LibSysCoroporation, New Delhi
LIBRIS	Frontier Information Technology Hyderabad
Library Manager	System Data Control Pvt. Bombay
Library Mgmt.	Raychansysmatics, Bangalore
MINISIS	SNDT, women University, Mumbai
Maitrayee	CMC,  Calcutta (for the CALIBNET Project)
MECSYS	MECON, Ranchi
NILIS	ASMITA Consultants, Bombay
Nirmals	Nirmal Institute Of Computer Expertise, Thiruchirapalai
OASYS/Alice	Softlink, New Delhi
SLIM	Algorithms, Pune
Slim 1.1	Algorithms,  Bombay
SALIM	Expertise, Tiruchirapalli, Uptronlndia Ltd.,  New Delhi
SOUL	INFLIBNET , Ahamdabad
SANJAY	NISSAT/DESIDOC DSIR , NEW DELHI
Suchika	DESIDOC , New Delhi
TLMS	INFLIBNET AHAMDABAD
Tech Lib+	NIC/OCLC NIC SR HYDERABAD
Trishna	NISTADS,  New Delhi. (Under NISSAT Project)
Tulib	Tata Unisys Ltd.,  Bombay
Ulysis	WlPRO Information Technology Ltd.,  Secunderabad
Wilisys	Wipro India, Bangalore
WILSYS	Wipro , Banglore

 

Source: www.netugc.com/

Library Network

Library Network: Library networking is an arrangement or a structure that links a group of libraries which have agreed to work together and / or share their resources in an organized basis to a certain degree. It can be defined as a “two or more libraries engaged in a common pattern of information exchange through communication for some functional purposes”. It is meant to promote and facilitate sharing of resources available within a group of participating libraries.

a) Definition: The National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS) in its National Programme Document (1975) defines a network as: “two or more libraries and/or other organizations engaged in a common pattern of information exchange, through communications, for some functional purpose. A network usually consists of a formal arrangement whereby materials, information and services provided by a variety of libraries and other organizations are available to all potential users. Libraries may be in different jurisdictions but they agree to serve one another on the same basis as each serves its own constituents. Computer and telecommunications may be among the tools used for facilitating communication among them”.

b) Precondition for Networking: The agreements between library authorities of different libraries, building or developing required infrastructure, maintenance of standardization in terms of classification schemes, cataloguing schemes, uses of some common library management software and so on are some of the preconditions before developing any kind of network. Some other preconditions are

i) Automation of the Member Library: For the success of network in the long run, each of the member libraries must have a policy to automate every function of the library – acquisition, cataloguing, classification, serials control, circulation, SDI, current awareness services, etc. – in the shortest possible time. This helps the library to have a computer environment which is required to design, develop, maintain and to operate several databases, to reduce the cost of library operations as well as network operations.

ii) Hardware and Software: The network should be able to recommend to participating libraries the type of hardware and software they need for their in-house functions and for networking purposes. Hardware should be selected considering the number of entries the participating libraries can generate within the next 3-5 years.

iii) Trained Manpower: If there is no adequate trained manpower in each of the member libraries, attempts should be made to train or/and recruit new skilled library personnel.

iv) Standardization: For the purpose of creating databases, it is essential to agree upon a standard. All libraries should follow a standard MARC format, AACR-II, a standard thesaurus like Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH), etc. uniformly. Although efforts should be made to have one classification scheme for all participating libraries yet the use of different numbers should not become a hurdle as search requests are mostly about authors, titles, editors and subject descriptions.

Besides the above, it is preferable to have certain communication facilities such as Fax, Telex, Telephone, etc. as a part of the network system in each of the member libraries for the effective working of the network. E-mail and internet facilities should be available with the libraries and they should be able to access international databases, preferably individually or through the network host to beginwith.

c) Advantages of Networking: The advantages of library networking are as follows:

i) Cooperative Collection Development: In the age of information explosion no individual library, however resourceful, can be self-sufficient in terms of documents. For a library, however rich it may be impossible to acquire and store all the documents within its four walls. Networking will help to develop collection in terms of books, periodicals, patents, standards, audio visual, CDs, etc. and share those resources.

ii) Meets Specialized User Demand: User needs are varied and diversified. To meet the specialized need one has to approach such special collection or special service that are available in special libraries. Networking will help in the sharing of experience and expertise of the library personnel.

iii) Breaks Financial Constraint: The library budgets are decreasing. With the provision of library networking a library can arrange for cooperative staff training, can exchange the staff for performing some technical works. Sharing of the finance for cooperative acquisition and collection development, processing, etc, can also be made.

iv) Reduces Unnecessary Duplication of Work: The networking will remove the efforts in duplication of classification, cataloguing, and such others.

v) Barrier Breaker: Library networking is needed to break the barriers of distance and time. Further, it will reduce the physical movement of materials.

vi) Sharing of Hardware Resources: Expensive computer equipment, microfilming equipment, digitizing devices for newspaper, reprographic systems, etc. can be procured by a networking group for the benefit of all the libraries of the network. Networking is also needed to connect personal computer with the mainframe or super computer for problem solving.

vii) Sharing of Software Resources: The software that is too expensive to procure by individual libraries can be procured and shared by the network for solving larger programmes, information retrieval, and so on. The software can be installed in the central computer and all other computers can be used as client.

viii) Development of Union Catalogue: Network helps in developing union catalogue to refer the user to the documents in any of the other participating libraries and it can be consulted by the user in order to know which document is available in which library. For example, Union Catalogue of Social Science Serials was compiled and published by the NASSDOC (ICSSR), New Delhi in 1980s.

ix) Development of Database: Library network helps in developing special database to meet some special need by the participatory libraries. Again, through networking the local information which is available over the network can be controlled locally that satisfies the accuracy. For example, National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serial in India (1988) was the result of the work of INSDOC in collaboration with several scientific libraries all over India.

x) Document Delivery Service (DDS): Networks enable librarians, faced with clients’ information needs beyond their local resources, to identify and obtain materials and services for those clients. The interlibrary loan, Document Delivery Service (DDS) provides the user the required documents irrespective of its location.

xi) Humanware: Manpower training and refresher course facilities – stimulating, promoting and coordinating research and training programme for library staff- can be arranged by the network members.

d) Development of Library Network in India: At international level Joint Academic NETwork (JANET), Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC), etc. are functioning properly. The examples of library networks in the western countries suggest that all networks based on a fee structure can be maintained without grant and are viable in the long run.

NICNET, established by National Informatics Centre (NIC) in 1977 was started in the late 1987’s. It is one of the largest VSAT Networks of its kind in the world. It was launched basically for getting and providing information from/to district levels to facilitate planning process. It links for regional nodes at Delhi, Pune, Bhubneswar and Hyderabad and has established 32 nodes at state and union territory levels and 439 nodes at district headquarters.

At national level INDONET is India’s first data communication and computer network that was started in March 1986 by CMC Ltd. It was launched as a solution to the growing need for providing timely, well processed data to various institutions. In the First phase, they have mainly network in Mumbai, Calcutta and Chennai. Later, Delhi and Hyderabad were also linked as additional stations. INDONET presently has an international gateway which provides access to the world wide pocket switched networks like USA’s Global Networks Systems (GNS) and Internet.

Education and Research Network (ERNET) <http://www.eis.ernet.in/> was launched by the Department of Education (DOE), Govt. of India in late 1986 with financial assistance from United Nationals Development Programme (UNDP) to provide academic and research institutions with electronic mail facilities. It is currently used by DSIR Labs, research centres and academic institutions.

Scientific and Industrial Research Network (SIRNET) was established by INSDOC in late 1989 to interconnect all the CSIR laboratories and other R&D institutions in India.

            The success of the above networks and the initiatives taken by NISSAT, UGC, Planning Commission and other departments of Govt. of India have led to the establishment and development of library networks in India.

CALIBNET was established by NISSAT in 1986 in Calcutta. It was the first library network visualized. At present, it has become the centre for CD-ROM databases which are acquired from outside sources. DELNET was established in 1988 in Delhi by India International Centre with the initial financial support of NISSAT. It is the first operational library network in India. INFLIBNET was established by UGC in 1988 and its operations began in 1991. It is a network of university and college libraries. MALIBNET is the result of the need for interconnecting libraries and information centres in Chennai, which was visualized by INSDOC in 1991. INSDOC undertook a feasibility study which was completed in March 1992. MALIBNET was registered as a society in Chennai in Feb. 1993. Some other library networks in India are PUNENET (1992) in Pune, ADINET (1993) in Ahmedabad, BONET (1994) in Mumbai, MYLIBNET (1994) in Mysore (Chennai), and BALNET (1995) in Bangalore.

e) Let Us Sum Up: According to Allen Kent "the success and survival of libraries will much depend on how much and to what extent the libraries cooperate with each other in future". Further, tremendous explosion of information, financial constraints, information in different forms, etc., compelling the libraries to form network and consortia is an essential facet of modern library practices.

In library network the particular focus is forming online networks by using computers and linking members to the computer resources by means of telecommunication connections. When a group of libraries using computers decide to exchange information, a network is developed.

The library network deals with the development of software for library automation, automation of the member libraries, retro-conversion of records, cooperative acquisition, creating union catalogue, development of database of the holdings in member libraries, conducting training, workshops and seminar, providing DDS, Email, CD-ROM, internet access facilities. It also provides reference service, referral service, and provides technical support to member institutions in the selection of hardware, software, and technical problem faced by the member libraries. But till now except DELNET and INFLIBNET, most of the other library networks have yet to develop databases of library holdings in a significant way. Even these two networks have to go a long way to cover in their databases the entire holdings of all the participating libraries. Unless this is achieved, the networks would not be able to achieve significant resource sharing as well as rationalization in library acquisitions.

www.netugc.com/

Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network (LAN): In a LAN two or more computers or node are directly linked within a small well defined areas such as a room, office, building, campus or a local neighborhood with a range of 10 kilometers. Each hardware device on a LAN such as computer or a printer is called a node. Most LANs are privately owned, controlled and managed by a single person or organization and uses direct high speed cables to share hardware, software and data resources. LAN uses the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE-802.5, IEEE 802.3), Ethernet, IBM token ring, etc standardization protocol where as WAN uses TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, etc.

The main component of LAN are discussed below-

A) Cables and Other Medium for Transmitting Signal: Cables and other medium for transmitting the signal is one of the very important components of any network. The cables can be of the following types-

a) Twisted Pair: It is used in low speed LAN using base hand transmission. In this mode of transmission data is transmitted as simple electrical levels often without any modulation. There is no multiplexing and the entire bandwidth of the medium is used for transmitting signals from one station. It is used for communication up to a distance of 2 km.

            Twisted pair is vulnerable to interference from large machines such as air conditioners. This interference can destroy data.

            Twisted pair cables are generally two types-

i) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP);

ii) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP);

            Twisted pair consists of a pair of insulated conductor’s that is twisted together.

b) Co-Axial Cables: It is used for broadband transmission of speeds of 10 Mbps or more. The broadband transmission uses modulation techniques and is suitable for transmitting high speed and multiplexed data. It consists of a solid conductor running coaxially inside a solid or braided outer annular conductor. The two kinds of co-axial cables are

i) Baseband Co-axial Cables: It can carry only one signal at a time, but it is fast (10 million bits per second).

ii) Broadband Co-axial Cables: It can carry more than one signal at a time. Cable TV companies use broad band co-axial cables.

c) Fiber Optic Cables: Fibre optic can be described as a transmission system employing a light-emitting source – turned on and off rapidly by electrical impulses whose emissions are sent through glass pipe to a light sensitive receiver to convert the changing light intensities back into the electrical impulses. The “core” of fibre optic cables is a very thin strand of highly refined cylindrical glass. A second layer of glass called clad surrounds the core. The clad is fured directly to the core so that it is very difficult to see the boundary between the two with naked eyes. Fibre optic cables are unaffected by magnetic or electrical interferences. They are however expensive and hard to install. The fibre optic carries data at the rate of 100 Mbps.

d) Line of Sigh Transmission: Here data are sent into air transmitted by infrared, lasers, microwaves and radio.

i) Wireless LAN: Wireless LAN uses infrared or radio wave transmission. Although wireless LAN are more prone to error and interception they do not require laying cables and moving it when a node is relocated.

e) Satellite Transmission: In many network fibre is used as backbone to distribute the network, while the last mile wiring is still some type of copper. Some network architecture has limitation on cable distances and the number of workstation that can be supported on as single segments. Exceeding these may result in inconsistent poor or absent network service to nodes beyond the limit. In some cases the entire network can be affected.

B) Fibre Connector: There are several different types of fibre connectors that includes the following:-

a) ST: This keyed, bayonet style (twist-lock) connector is widely used.

b) SC: The SC connector used internationally is a snap-lock connector with a duplex connection, one each to transmit and receive.

Other connectors in the fibre arena includes SMA connectors which are rapidly becoming obsolete and proprietary and specialized connectors that are not as widely used.

C) Controlled Mechanism: The controlled mechanism consists of the following units-

a) Cable Interface Unit: Sometimes also called as hub. It sends and receives signals on the network cables. This unit is a box outside the computers.

i) Hub: Hub acts at the data link layer, acting as a breakout box signals they receive and is the common wiring point for a star topology. It forwards packet to all active ports and shares the bandwidth.

ii) Switches: It works at layer 2 of OSI reference model and checks the destination address and makes a virtual path to the destination port. It does not share band width.

iii) Routers: It works at layer 3 of OSI reference model. Its job is to send packets created by higher layer of the network to the ultimate destination.

            If a network has less number of node, the choice should be 10/100 hubs. If it consists of number of nodes and dispersed in different floor / building your best choice will be switch.

b) Network Media Connector: The connector used to attach network media to the networking devices are called networking media connector. Some of the commonly used network media connectors are-

i) Register Jack 11:

ii) Register Jack 45:

iii) BNC (Bayonet Neill Concelman Connectors):

c) Structured Cabling: A structured cabling system consists of outlets which provide the user with RJ45 presentation, which is again enabled back to a Telecommunication Closet (TC) using an individual cable containing four twisted pair. This cabling is known as horizontal cabling which is again connected back to the back  of the user outlet by means of an Insulation Displacement Connection (IDC) connector.

            The maximum length of cables between the hub and any outlet must be 90 metre to comply with EIA/TIA and ISO requirements. The standard allows a further 10 metre for connecting leads and patches leads making a total drive distance of 100 metres.

D) Node: Each hardware device on a LAN such as computer printer is called a node.

a) Network Card: The Network Interface Card (NIC) is the main physical device which sends and receives data from network cables. A network interface card must be installed at every host that wished to connect to network. The NIC is inserted into an expansion slot inside the computer. The card is connected to the cable interface unit by wire.

            LAN can be connected by a bridge, a router or a gateway. If two LANs are similar one can use a bridge to connect them with two or more similar LANs one can use a router to connect them. With two dissimilar LAN one can use a gateway. The gateway translates the LANs difference data format.

In case of LAN, the accesses are generally done through Switched Access, Contention or Multiple Accesses and Token Passing Access.

The Contention or Multiple Accesses is used in bus topology. In this technique if a line is unused a terminal or device can transmit its message at will but if two or more terminals initiate message simultaneously, they must stop and transmit again at different intervals.

The Token Passing Access is used in ring topology. In this system to deliver a message one should hand over addressed note to a rider (the token) on the many go round that would drop it of at the appropriate place.

            There are also other techniques like reservation access, load adaptive access, tree structure based access, etc.

Some of the need and advantages of LAN are-

a) Resource Sharing: Networking is needed for sharing of:

i) Hardware: The Mainframe computer, super computer, Laser Printer, etc.

ii) Software: For sharing costly software, such as LibSys.

iii) Information: Data, text, audios, videos, picture, databases, etc

b) Distance, Cost, Time, and Space: Networking is needed for breaking the barrier of distance, cost, time and space.

c) Organizational Infrastructure: LAN improves the existing organizational infrastructure.

d) High Speed: LAN provides high speed networking when compared with other network.

e) Low Error Rates: LAN provides accurate data transmission.

f) Internet Access: A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN. All users of the LAN network can share a common line to the internet.

Some of the disadvantages of using LAN are -

a) Distance Covered is Limited: The distance that can be covered by LAN is limited.

b) Number of Terminal is Restricted: Number of terminal to be added to the network is also limited.

c) Initial Cost is High: Many people consider the cost in setting up the LAN as high investment.

Most LANs are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware options also exist. Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a LAN. For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide a software package called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to LAN resources.

www.netugc.com/

E-Document

1. Introduction: The information sources which are in electronic format and which are communicate via the electronic media are called electronic documents and in brief e-documents. The electronic media is a computer based media for storage and dissemination of information.

2. Characteristic of E-Document

i) The information are exists in a digital format or computer processable format.

ii) Information are published by releasing them to a central database or in the form of CD Rom, DVD Rom, etc.

iii) E-document can embed text, static picture, sound, animation, motion picture and various tactile modes of communication.

iv) Processing, presentation, storage, display, communication is carried out through the use of digital technology.

v) E-documents are distributed by CD Rom, DVD Rom or communication link.

vi) Helps in easy document delivery. Users may established their own accounts, change services, pay through credit cards or by some other pre-arranged method and have requested material delivered directly to them by Fax, Email, etc.

3. Advantages of E-Documents

i) Structured Approach: E-document provides accesses to much richer content in a more structured manner i.e. we can easily move from a particular content to a chapter from the index to the original text, etc.

ii) Reference: In case of e-document the endnotes are available by a clickable link from the note of main text. The reference sources provides online link to the original document so a seamlessly integration can be achieved.

iii) Information Retrieval: The user is able to use any search term belonging to the word or phrase of the entire publication. Some online e-document also provides internal search engines.

iv) Updated Information: Latest information can be accumulated in e-document very effectively so a new edition / version can be brought with a little extra cost.

v) Multiple Accesses: The same e-document can be used at the same time by a number of users.

vi) On demand publishing: The individual subscribers can be provided with only that document which match their profile and can be changed accordingly.

vii) Space: E-document requires very little physical space to keep them. So when a library had no space for extension digitization is the only solution.

viii) Preservation and Conservation: An exact copy of the original can be made any number of times without any degradation in quality.

ix) Cost: E-document is cost effective when we consider its maintenance, additional copy, etc.

x) Speed: In case of e-document time lag between the origin of a document and its use by end user will be greatly decreased. Also the time lag in submission of a reference question in library, referring the user to a particular document, its consultation in the computer screen, editing, composing, printing and forwarding will be greatly reduced.

xi) No physical boundary: The user of e-document need not to go to the library physically. People from all over the world could gain accesses to the same information as long as the internet connection is available.

xii) Round the clock availability: E-document can be accessed at any time, 24 hours a day and 365 days of the year.

xiii) Manageability: E-document can easily be managed by adding bookmark and personal notes to the site or by downloading it to private files or database for copying and editing.

4. Disadvantages of E-document: 

The computer viruses, lack of standardization for digitized information, quick degrading properties of digitized material, different display standard of digital product and its associated problem, health hazard nature of the radiation from monitor, etc some of the problem associated with e-document. Some other disadvantages of e-documents are

i) Copyright: E-document will violate copyright laws as the thought content of one author can be freely transfer by other without his acknowledgement.

ii) Bandwidth: E-document will need high bandwidth for transfer of multimedia resources but the unused bandwidth is decreasing day by day due to its over utilization.

iii) Speed of Access: As more and more computers are connected to the internet its speed of access reasonably decreasing, if new technology will not evolve to solve the problem then in near future internet will be full of error messages.

iv) Incompatible Hardware and Software: Due to the absence of common standard regarding hardware and software the display of e-document creates another problem.

v) Initial cost is height: The infrastructure required to access the e-document is generally high i.e. cost of hardware, software, lease line connection, internet LAN, etc.

vi) Preservation: The technology used by a particular e-document publisher becomes out of date very soon due to the rapid technological development. So the data may become inaccessible.

vii) Environment: An E- document cannot be read without the computer system or special equipment needed to access the document. So a user cannot take out an E- document with him to read it at convenient time and place. Again, many people find reading printed material to be easier than reading material on computer screen. So E- document cannot reduce the environment of a traditional book.

            According to Crawford and Gorman (1995), paper and printed still work best for sustained reading while electronic distribution of information is better for communicating data and small packet of information.

viii) Simultaneous Access: Over the world could gain access to the same information as long as the Internet connection is available.

ix) Round the clock availability: E- document can be accessed at any time, 24 hours a day and 365 days in a year.

x) Manageability: E- document can be easily managed by adding book mark and personal notes to the site or by downloading it to private files or database for copying and editing.

source: www.netugc.com